The Koreas Divided and the Future? Part Three

Part Three: Korea Divided

            The Korean War failed to unify the peninsula to the satisfaction of either the Western powers, Communist powers or the Koreans. North Korea and South Korea evolved in radically different ways. North Korea became a repressive, Stalinist dictatorship. South Korea eventually became a politically progressive, capitalist state. Elements of ancient Confucian attitudes remain strong in both countries, albeit in wildly different forms. Neither nation’s journey was easy or is complete. The dream of unification remains elusive. This situation is best addressed with examinations of the culture and politics of the two Koreas.

North Korea:

            The North Korean regime wants to survive. North Korea wants recognition by, not war with the United States. To do so they practice a sophisticated form of brinksmanship. While the leadership and diplomatic corps may be very knowledgeable about the West; the people live in a 1950”s time-warp with very little awareness of the outside world. North Korea is the only country in history with a hereditary-Communist line of succession. This fact in itself is problematic because of the talents or personalities of the leaders vary and because the ideological underpinnings of the state are essentially dysfunctional. The current, “Dear Leader”, Kim Jong Il is reputed to be in poor health. The matter of who takes power next is unclear to Western observers although some made an educated guess that it may be his third son, Kim Jong Woong. However; the relatively unknown and untested third (but probably the least eccentric and tough) son, Kim Jong Un was promoted to power with much fanfare. A power struggle could ensue with unknown consequences. This combination of a volatile, cunning leadership when mixed with an ignorant (in terms of understanding the outside world), desperate populace is most dangerous.

South Koreans say that, “We are the pretty people; they (the North Koreans) are the tough people.” This is somewhat true. High fashion and glamour are important parts of South Korean life. North Koreans must be tough to survive in their own isolated country with its Siberian winters. North Korea is one of the rare nations on earth that has actually lost population in some recent years due to famine. The North Koreans have made this attitude towards hardship part of their official “myth”. The Korean word for this concept is “chuch’e” or “self reliance. The leadership is cloaked in Confucian glory while the people are urged to endure. A few brief vignettes now follow to illustrate my points.

The founder of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Kim Il Sung is deified in a “Godless Communist” country as the “Great Leader”. The reverence towards the top North Korean leaders is a carefully managed cult that reaches all the way back to the Korean creation myths for substance. He (Kim) began his rise to power as a guerrilla leader during the Japanese occupation of China and Korea. Once he took power he quickly established a powerful, centralized and militaristic state. The generals and bureaucrats supported these moves for their share of power and to keep living. During the long Cold War from 1946 to 1989 North Korea was a client state of the great Communist powers. The Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China propped up the regime. Trade with other Communist nations was flowed freely. Things became shaky, to say the least after the Berlin Wall fell and Communist governments in Europe began to topple. Matters got worse when the Soviet Union fell to be replaced by the Russian Confederation. North Korea became more isolated from the world and the spigot of aid was cut off. The centralized Soviet style economy was usually in a tail-spin. Their only reliable ally became China yet China appears to be losing patience (maybe) with North Korea shenanigans as well. Russian and Chinese trade with South Korea has increased dramatically. The North Koreans resorted to provocative measures in order to ensure a flow of cash. Among these are the sale of nuclear and missile technology to Islamic nations including Pakistan, the manufacture of recreational designer drugs for the black-market and the counterfeiting of pretty good looking US $100.00 bills. North Korea routinely sends spies to the famed electronic markets in Tokyo. The purpose is to purchase the latest devices and silicon chips and convert these items into military technologies.

The West and well meaning Non-Governmental Organizations around the world now face a constant dilemma or moral problem. No one liked the regime and no one wanted the people to starve. The North Korean government knows this. So, much of North Korean diplomacy, no matter how bizarre or threatening it may seem to the outside observer is an attempt to gain attention in order to keep the aid flowing. This is why acts by the North Koreans that make little sense to us make a great deal of sense internally to the regime. The well known propensity of the North Koreans to break off negotiations with other parties is a perfect example of this. Diplomatic talks will break down because North Korea wants to deal only with the Americans or because they unexpectedly hike their demands for food-aid or fuel oil. The situation is akin to that of a child acting out in order to gain any, even negative attention. Nevertheless, as contradictory as it seems, the North Koreans cling to their ideal of self reliance because it makes sense in terms of internal propaganda and they actually are very tough minded people. This all adds up to an almost impossible diplomatic headache. Maybe not; it is hopeful to recall that the North Koreans fell all over themselves to entertain US Secretary of State Madeline Albright when President Bill Clinton sent her to North Korea.

Kim Il Sung was followed by one of his sons, Kim Jong Il. “The Dear Leader” is a very different type of beast than his father. Kim Jong Il does not have a military background. He is more interested in the arts, especially film. In his early days in power he was known as a notorious “party animal”. His antics included heavy drinking, smoking far too many cigarettes, kidnapping a Japanese actress and others for his film productions and sending his personal chef around the world to procure delicacies. He is liable to order all the women at a party to strip and dance naked under a mirror ball. While it may be “fun to be the king”, Kim should never be underestimated. He has cleaned up his behavior due to possible strokes and cancer. The country remains under tight control. He is worshipped as a semi-divine hero and he retains the strategic sense of his father.

In addition to the dreaded million man army he fields; Kim has a great deal of artillery, one of the largest and most active submarine fleets in the world, missiles of increasing range and low yield atomic weapons. Lest we panic at the thought; all of this is balanced by the very talented, well equipped South Korean army of 750,000 to 800,000 troops and 35,000 in US ground forces plus the US Seventh Fleet (which is also assigned to patrol the international waters between China and Taiwan). The North Koreans did respond well to periods of rapprochement under Presidents Carter and Clinton. The greatest recent problem had to do with nuclear weapons and the US administration of President George W. Bush. The conservative argument on this matter is valid. The North Koreans were being sneaky and breaking some articles of nuclear-reactor agreements with the US. However, it is clear that the North Korean nuclear program accelerated after the famed 2003 “Axis of Evil” State of the Union speech. The North Koreans observed the US invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq and obviously felt they needed to play the atomic card. They are aware that the United States has multiple, intractable problems in the Middle East. The “Six Party Talks” between South Korea, North Korea, the United States, Russia, China and Japan are on and off depending on the most recent crisis. As of this writing, North Korea is quiet. They regime is probably watching American financial and international dilemmas while maneuvering for position in the on and off Six Party Talks. Expect surprises.

South Korea:

Dwight D. Eisenhower won the 1952 presidential election in part because he promised to end the Korean War. Adlai Stevenson and the Democrats were generally forced into a defense posture during the 1950”s as fear of a global Communist triumph enflamed the American mind. The dual losses of China and Korea led the Democrats to take an unfortunate stand in Vietnam because it was politically impossible to be soft on Communism and win US elections. The war did end in 1953 with an armistice or basically a cease fire. South Korea was wrecked. There were famines, insurrections, hordes of refugees and very complicated prisoner of war exchanges to deal with. The United States began to pour billions of dollars of aid into the South while paying little attention as to how South Korea was governed. Prior to 1980 the country was dominated by rightist-militarist governments. The second great force in South Korean life became the six “chaebols” or gigantic corporations. South Korea industrialized rapidly in terms of steel-making, ship-building, chemicals and textiles. The combination of American money, the Confucian work-ethic and corporate power led to what is known as, “The Miracle on the Han”, named for the river that runs through Seoul.

The major figure in South Korean politics became President Park Chung Hee. Park was educated in Japan and served in both the Japanese and South Korean militaries. He came to America’s attention as the leader of a military coup in 1961. He won the presidency three times and in 1974 he declared martial-law while throwing out the South Korean Constitution. The United States was attempting to extricate itself from Vietnam at this time. The Watergate scandal and the fall of Richard Nixon further distracted Washington as Park’s rule became harsher. (It is worth noting that the United States almost went to war during the term of President Gerald Ford when North Korean soldiers killed two American officers who were trimming a tree on the DMZ. A similar situation was to arise when President Bill Clinton discovered that the North Korean nuclear program was expanding in regardless of the festivities in DPRK when Secretary of State Madeline visited.). The Americans were attempting to clear their line of sight. The officers were beaten to death with steel pipes and axes. Park was able to totally dominate South Korean life but not without opposition. He survived an assassination attempt that killed his wife (the South Korean First Lady). He repeatedly jailed the leader of the liberal opposition, Kim Dae Jung. He unleashed a savage secret police service and used torture. Relations with Japan were pushed to the breaking point because while the assassination attempt appeared to be a North Korean plot, the assassins staged their attack from Japan. Park began a South Korean nuclear program with assistance from France. South Korea has many nuclear power plants today; so, the assumption must be made that if South Korea wanted the atomic bomb, they could build it quickly.

Park was assassinated in 1979 by the head of his own intelligence agency, the KCIA. For all of his toughness; he is remembered fondly by many South Koreans. He was a polite, demure almost shy man; a very different type than the larger than life Communist leader Kim Il Sung. Park was good in funding projects that pleased his people. He is credited in many quarters with creating and building the South Korean university system; an act especially endearing to the Confucian/Koreans who revere education. During this period President Jimmy Carter played a crucial role. Carter is a moral man who is not comfortable with the hard pragmatism of “realpolitik”. The president spent a great deal of his time on a plan to withdraw American troops from the DMZ and Korea. Carter encountered resistance from the South Koreans and from within his own administration. These efforts, ironically, led to the political weakening of President Park and perhaps, to his assassination.

Matters got worse for both Carter and the Koreans. In 1980 there was a massive student-democracy uprising in the far southern city of Kwangju. Various labor unions, student and democracy groups were protesting across the country. The National Assembly in Seoul was closed and sealed by force. By this time President Carter had enormous problems due to the Iranian Hostage Crisis. Under the terms of the “Joint Forces Agreement” the Americans have nominal control of South Korean forces (a situation that current ROK governments constantly push to change). The US had little option when the South Korean government cracked down. Heavily armed, elite divisions of ROK troops, supported by armor attacked the city. The residents of Kwangju fought back. The soldiers rampaged with the bayonet, assault rifles, and machine-guns. The protestors were run over, literally squashed with tanks. It was a horrific massacre.

At the moment of his electoral defeat in 1980 Carter gained a victory that proved crucial for Korean democracy. President Carter briefed President-elect Ronald Reagan on the situation in Korea. Carter asked Reagan to continue diplomatic pressure on the South Koreans with the purpose of freeing and protecting Kim Dae Jung. Although there was no more talk of US forces withdrawing; Reagan kept his promise and the liberal leader was freed. This was the true birth of the democratic South Korea we know today. South Korea gained the world stage when it hosted the 1988 Olympic Games. This led North Korea to engage in yet another fit of bizarre, jealous behavior that included the assassinations of South Korean diplomats and the destruction of South Korean jet-liners. The Soviet Union also shot down a Korean Airlines 747 when it strayed near the Kamchatka Peninsula. The Russians had a visual sighting of the enormous sky-blue passenger jet meaning that their claims it was an enemy fighter plane of some sort were ridiculous. The Americans and South Koreans were enraged and the tenuous peace in Korea teetered towards disaster again. In spite of this and an almost endless list of other provocations there was no second Korean War. Kim Dae Jung eventually won the presidency and the Noble Peace Prize. There were some scandals during his term; however Kim came up with possibly the most promising solution for re-unification, “The Sunshine Policy”. This program has three phases.

#1: Rapprochement or cooperation in the form of increased trade, aid to the North, family visits, rail-links, air-links and contacts at the highest levels of both governments. I witnessed South Koreans crying with joy when Kim Dae Jung flew to Pyongyang to meet with Kim Jong Il. The increasing communication between the two Koreas was of enormous value in both the symbolic and real senses. This policy was progressing fairly well during the presidency of William Jefferson Clinton. Clinton was far more wary about North Korea than generally believed by conservative Americans. At one point he seriously considered attacking the North due to the DPRK”s nuclear experimentation. He was quite displeased when former President Carter appeared to exceed the parameters of his diplomatic brief on a visit to the North in 1993. Carter actually did fairly well in terms of calming tensions; but given the ongoing dilemma of what to do about North Korea, that depends on your point of view.

#2: A period of Confederation in which both governments, North and South continue to exist. The hope here is that the old guard Communists and extreme right-wingers would be allowed to fade away while moderates on both sides slowly come to understand and trust each other. Televised images of Western reporters prodding proud, aging Communist generals with questions are an unimaginable, embarrassing and dangerous fantasy. We know the horrors of war in Korea. The question is; can re-unification be accomplished without politically impossible appeasements? Perhaps; one small, glimmering, symbolic example of “The Sunshine Policy” or theory in action is the fact that the two Koreas compete together in the Olympics.

#3: Finally; re-unification, the cherished dream of Koreans on both sides of the border. This would be accomplished with constitutional constraints. Basically stated, if the Communists won an open election they would not be allowed to use their majority to overthrow democracy. There is no time-table for “The Sunshine Policy”. To risk a stereotype; this may be the type of Asian thinking that tends to frustrate Americans.

Kim Dae Jung was President of South Korea from 1998 to 2003. He was followed by another liberal Roh (pronounced “Noh”) Moo Hyun from 2003 to 2008. Both these liberal governments were rocked by various scandals. The current president is Lee Myung Bak, a conservative. One interesting international mess of the very recent past was the anti-US demonstrations in South Korea over imports of American beef. Many people here view South Korea as a dirty and over industrialized country with some justification. Yet, Koreans are very clean people and there are inexpensive bath-houses and saunas everywhere in the South at least. It should give one pause to consider that the Koreans felt American meat is both unhealthy and an import threat or balance of trade problem. The ROK uses protective tariffs to its advantage. One product that is largely blocked is American wines and unfortunate situation because Koreans do enjoy wine and the US certainly needs to raise cash via trade. While I may digress here; it is important to remember that both Koreas will act in what they perceive to be their national self interest.

President Lee and his administration are now dealing with crisis upon crisis provoked by the North Koreans. Recently a South Korean naval vessel went down under very suspicious circumstances in disputed waters (fishing rights in islands claimed by many nations in the area) meaning that it was torpedoed by the North. Then the North shelled Southern islands leading to much consternation, damage and horror. These actions led to separate, quick summit meetings between both Koreas and the Chinese. One conference with the North was especially odd because it featured an opera written by Kim Jong Il. Putting aside the ongoing gravity of this situation; these incidents do illustrate that every time an observer or writer or diplomat assumes that there might be a somewhat calm period in which some progress might be made some new, frustrating and dangerous twist occurs. Yet, as noted, this is how things are when dealing with North Korea.

“The Sunshine Policy” may be attacked as being both naïve and quixotic given the crazy circumstances of recent Korean history. Nevertheless; it offers hope. One only had to see the stony look on Kim Dae Jung’s face after his last visit before leaving office with President George W. Bush to understand the depth of this hope. Given recent events; the dream of re-unification seems to be nothing more than a dwindling fantasy. It will be difficult enough to get any of the parties to negotiate again. It is well to remember that North Korea is expert at surprising the world a form of, “jerking (the collective) chain” for its own purposes. It strains belief that the US, the ROK and other nations in the area will endlessly tolerate a nuclear armed North Korea. Cooler heads must prevail with the long view of a united, peaceful Korea in mind. This hope, this great desire in the Korean heart(s) for re-unification can and should be managed with a view towards the best interest of all nations and peoples concerned.

Korean History is now moving so quickly that it is hard to keep up with or predict the future. Kim Jong Il died recently leading to massive mourning demonstrations in the North and a heightened state of wariness everywhere else. The succession went to his third son, Kim Jong Un who was raised from relative obscurity to the height of power in the DPRK. Beyond the usual problems with North Korea (the bomb, poverty and the very unique governmental structure) the new Kim is in his late 20's and untested. There are signs that other members of the Kim family are not thrilled with this development. In addition there are the old hard-line Stalinist generals to consider. As usual, there are flickers of hope. North Korea has opened a chain of, "Pyongyang" restaurants in South-East Asia which are popular with South Korean tourists. Nevertheless; the situation is dangerous and volatile. President Obama's administration is busy sending diplomats to South Korea and other nations in the area to urge them to reduce oil imports from Iran due to worsening tensions between that nation and the West. The North needs assistance yet resists the flow of information about the outside world that would enter the country if that assistance was accepted. There could be a power struggle in the North with unknown consequences. The North does have enough experienced diplomats and pragmatic people to know that other powers, both East and West are watching carefully. Thus; the calculation becomes (for the North), how hard to provoke and push or to move towards rapprochement with South Korea and the World? As noted previously; expect surprises.

. Keith B Keller

I have drawn these thoughts on Korea from my own travels there between 1999 and 2001 and a rather constant following of events on the peninsula in the US media. I am indebted to many Koreans for their comments especially Professor Kim Yang Soon the Chairwoman of the English Department at Hanbat University in Daejon and South Korea’s former Ambassador to Egypt, Mr. Oh Yoon Kyung. I recommend the following books to those who wish to explore, “The Land of the Morning Calm” further. These titles have been of enormous help to me in arranging this piece in some meaningful form. My thanks and appreciation is due to the authors.

“The Korean War” by Max Hastings

“The Korean War: An International History” by William Stueck

“The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History” by Don Oberdorfer

“Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History” by Bruce Cumings

cc: KK

           

           

Korea: Into the Modern: Part Two

Part Two: Into the Modern: the Korean War and other events…

Korea remained isolated throughout most of the 17^th and 18^th Centuries. The Choson Dynasty looked towards China and the Manchus were Korea’s main contact in terms of trade and diplomacy. The West was aware of “The Hermit Kingdom” and was intensely curious. France and the United States attempted naval probes or expeditions during the 1860”s. Both of these were driven off by the Koreans. The US was exhausted by the Civil War and for a time, turned away. Christian missionaries entered Korea. The Koreans were animists, Buddhists and Confucians. They did not, at first take kindly to the new religion. There were multiple incidents in which missionaries were captured, killed and/or driven out of the country. In the end it was various Presbyterian-Protestant denominations that succeeded in Korea. Today, the religious demographic of Korea is roughly one third Buddhist, one third Christian, one third local animist with a general Confucian overlay. It may come as a surprise to some Westerners that these groups get along quite well with each other. They practice religious tolerance. The social fault lines today have more to do with the modern vs. the ancient, class or wealth, loyalties to local areas and internal politics.

The rise of Japan after the Mejii Restoration is crucial to Korean History. In 1895 Japan defeated the tottering Manchu Dynasty in a clash that had a great deal to do with access to Manchuria. China’s influence on Korea waned. This hastened the fall of the Manchus and in turn, led in part to the rise of the Republic of China. The Russo/Japanese War of 1904-05 proved to have enormous ramifications for Korea and the world. The Japanese soundly thrashed the Russian Czar’s Pacific and Baltic Fleets. The Baltic Fleet actually steamed around the world only to lose a second series of naval battles. The fighting on land was inconclusive yet Japan was the clear overall victor in this conflict. The West was shocked to see the unexpected, rapid rise of a “yellow” Asian power. President Theodore Roosevelt and Secretary of State William Howard Taft brought the Japanese and Russians to the negotiating table. Peace was made. Roosevelt won the Noble Peace Prize. The Russian officer corps was left humiliated and angry by this loss; a bitter future fruit as Czarist Russia stumbled towards Communist revolution. The salient point here is that; Japan was given a “free-hand” or “sphere of influence” in Korea. Japan began to put diplomatic, political and economic pressure on the Korean government. As the Choson Dynasty continued to weaken the Japanese took advantage. In essence, Japan controlled the Korean throne and those among the Korean royalty who resisted were eliminated. By 1910 Korea was a colony of Imperial Japan. This year also marked the end of the Choson Dynasty and the fall of the last Korean Empress is still remembered with deep sadness by Koreans.

Whether the Koreans wanted it, liked it or not; Japan pushed Korea into the modern age. The Korean language, “Hangul” was banned in schools as the rigid Japanese education system imposed. Korea was industrialized, electrified and generally modernized. It became a classic colonial relationship. Korea supplied labor and raw materials to Japan. Japan was in a very expansive and imperialistic mood. Korea became the ideal base as Japan sought to enter China. The Second World War actually started when Japan and China began hostilities over Manchurian railway rights in 1931 (the same year that fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia). Japan invaded China. China dissolved as the Nationalist government dithered. Jiang Jieshi, the recalcitrant President of the Republic of China appeared to dread a rising Communist insurgency led by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai more that he feared Japan. It did not help matters that warlords controlled vast areas of China. Neither did it help that Fascism was gaining ground in Europe during the 1930”s. Nazi Germany began to grab territory with aggressive, bullying diplomacy and military action. Europe and the United States were thus badly distracted in terms of events in Asia. A pattern began to develop that lasted throughout World War Two until 1949 when the Communists won, thus creating The People’s Republic of China. The administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt tried to aid the Chinese and to prod Jiang to make greater efforts against the Japanese. President Jiang usually threw more energy, money and materiel against the Communists than the Japanese to the immense frustration of the Americans. Relations between Japan and the United States deteriorated. Roosevelt wanted Japan out of China. Japan held deep resentments towards the US in terms of past American racism towards Asians. The Roosevelt administration began to cut off supplies of steel and oil to Japan. Japan acted. Pearl Harbor in Hawaii was attacked on December 7^th, 1941.

The Japanese called World War Two, “The Pacific War” and “The Fifteen Year War” because, for them, it was fought in the Pacific and lasted 15 years. Their great Harvard educated Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto accurately predicted the course of World War Two in the Pacific. He knew that Japan would have about one year to rampage around Pacific Asia before the overwhelming military and economic might of the United States changed the equation. Japanese armies swept through China and South-East Asia. The French and British suffered the loss of their colonial empires in Asia. The English Pacific fleet was lost as was the great bastion of Singapore. The Philippines fell. Japanese carrier groups ventured into the Bay of Bengal and probed the Indian coast. Pearl Harbor was wrecked. Unfortunately from the Japanese point of view; the US carrier fleet, submarine pens and oil depots survived the attack. The turning point did not come until the Battle of Midway in 1942 when the Imperial Navy lost four first class aircraft carriers. What followed was three more years of horrible carnage as the Allies slogged their way towards the Japanese Home Islands. The purpose of this huge “island hopping” campaign was to gain bases for air assaults against Japan.

The Japanese propaganda term for their conquest of Asia was “The Greater East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”. The rally cry was, “Asia for the Asians”. This does not sound unreasonable at first until we recall that the Japanese held racist views about other peoples in Asia. They believed themselves superior, their Emperor to be divine and they sought dominance. These attitudes were evident in Korea.  Korean industrial and agricultural production was used to supply the Japanese war effort. Korean men found themselves fighting for Japan “in foreign fields”. Korean women were forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese military. A special currency was printed for the “cost” of these liaisons with the Korean, “comfort women”. The term “comfort women” is one of those infamous, banal euphemisms or phrases for human evil, much like “The Joy Division”, “The New Order”, “The Dictatorship of the Proletariat”, “the Peculiar Institution”, “Death to the Infidels!”, “Ethnic Cleansing” or “Shock and Awe”. Japan has never fully apologized for this forced prostitution of Korean women and other atrocities in Asia during the war. The “deepest regrets” are expressed and payments have been made. Of course the losers in war must generally apologize; the victors almost never and there are legal/financial reasons to avoid such statements. The remembrance of these acts stand in silent eloquence for themselves; war is an immoral business.

There was little or no fighting in Korea during the Pacific War. I have often wondered what might have happened if the United States had attempted landings in Korea during the war? The Koreans may have risen and tried to throw the Japanese out themselves. The slaughterhouses of Iwo Jima and Okinawa might have been avoided. Korea is certainly near to Japan, thus making it a perfect base for the bombing of Japan. What happened later with the Communists could have been averted. Yet, a historian’s duty is to write about and try to analyze what actually happened. To do otherwise is to create science-fiction no matter how interesting it may be. Nevertheless; the Japanese assaults during the war served to remove or weaken much of European and American influence in Asia (colonies) even in recalcitrant defeat.

When atomic bombs fell on Nagasaki and Hiroshima Korea was still occupied by Japanese forces. American soldiers peacefully landed in Korea to the great joy of the Koreans. This happy period proved to all too brief due to a series of inter-acting events. Russian troops were deeply involved in Manchuria as they toppled the Japanese puppet dynasty of Manchuko. The American commanders on the scene contacted the State Department for instructions. Basically stated, the question was; “What is the plan for Korea?” As it turned out there was no plan. In a somewhat frantic scramble John Forster Dulles and other State Department officials called for maps of Korea and sought information on the country. In the meantime, Soviet forces entered the North of Korea. This led to yet another complicated and confusing period in Korean History. Because the country was “free” political parties on the right and left arose. These groups had survived under the surface during the Japanese occupation. The US tended to support the rightists and the USSR the leftists. Attempts to hold nation-wide unity elections failed. The situation devolved; the South was rapidly becoming a client of the United States while the North was backed by the Russians and the PRC. The Communists in the North began purges of people who had collaborated with Japan or those who held liberal democratic views. Matters worsened further when a leftist rebellion flared in the far south of South Korea. This revolt was brutally smashed by the southerners with some help from the US. The South accused the North of backing the uprising. Premier Stalin of the Soviet Union pulled his forces out in 1948. Nevertheless, at this point, a divided Korea was a fact. The United Nations stepped in to sponsor democratic elections in the South. In essence this was de-facto recognition of reality. Korea was partitioned along the 38^th Parallel. South Korea developed in to a rightist, pseudo-democratic military regime under President Rhee Syngman. The North became a ruthless Stalinist style dictatorship under the rule of Kim Il Sung.  Tragedy continued to lurk in the wings for Korea.

The Korean War started on June 26^th, 1950 when North Korea launched a huge invasion of the South. Some leftist American historians, including I.F. Stone believe that President Rhee may have provoked this with minor raids against the North in the hopes of gaining increased US military assistance. There is no question that the North had prepared in advance. The bulk of American forces in Asia were engaged in the occupation of Japan under General Douglas MacArthur. The Japanese made a 180 degree turn in their attitude once Emperor Hirohito had told them that the “Pacific War” was lost. Occupation duty was easy in Japan because the Japanese cooperated and absorbed American culture with enthusiasm. North Korea was in no mood to make things easy or cooperate.

MacArthur began to pour his unprepared soldiers into Korea. President Harry S. Truman took the matter to the United Nations. The ensuing series of battles proved to be the worst string of defeats for the United States since the halcyon days of the Southern Confederacy. Constantly retreating; the US and South Korean armies were driven down the length of the peninsula. As supplies and reinforcements arrived they managed to rally and create “The Busan Perimeter” around the southern seaport of Busan. The Soviet Union then made one of the greatest diplomatic mistakes in history. They chose to boycott the Security Council meeting on Korea. This allowed President Truman to get what he needed, a UN resolution for the use of force to save South Korea. The “UN” forces were the United States, South Korea and various nations from the British Commonwealth. President Jiang of The Republic of China, after losing to the Communists in 1949 was now bottled up in Taiwan. He offered to enter the war on the UN side. Truman and his advisors knowing this would be a guaranteed way to completely infuriate China wisely declined the offer. India; the leader of “The Non-Aligned Nations” actively worked throughout the war to find a way to stop the fighting. These efforts went nowhere; although they did become useful after the war in terms of prisoner exchanges.

There are some personal relationships that were crucial to the eventual outcome of the Korean War. First; it is most interesting that Kim Il Sung managed to get tacit approval and combat forces from both Russia and China. Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong were not fond of each other. Both men were adept at calculating the odds and evaluating the threat. Neither wanted a free, Western leaning and unified Korea on their borders. In the end, a chance to give the Americans a sound beating in Asia proved to be irresistible. The other crucial factor was the problematic relationship between President Truman and General MacArthur. Truman’s goals were to save South Korea and avoid nuclear war with the Soviet Union. Truman’s thinking resonated with liberal diplomat George F. Kennan’s Cold War concept of “containment” of the USSR. However, it also introduced the troubling, controversial idea of “limited war” into the lexicon. MacArthur wanted to eliminate North Korea and free all the Korean people. He was willing to push military matters and political matters to the brink to attain this. He publicly squabbled with the president, made noises about running for the presidency as a Republican, wrote letters to Congressmen that ended up in the press and aggressively prosecuted the war.

MacArthur was an aging yet brilliant commander. Later in 1950 he devised the famous landing at Inchon, a port city on the Western side of South Korea. Because Inchon has strong tides and steep beaches this move was considered impossible by military strategists. MacArthur proved the experts wrong. A naval task force led by the battleship Missouri (ironically, Truman’s home state) distracted the North Koreans with bombardments on their West coast. The landing surprised the North Koreans leaving the Americans behind or north of the forces besieging Busan. The North Korean invasion dissolved and their armies fled to the North constantly harried by the US Air Force. MacArthur and the UN forces pushed them hard to the point where a very thin slice of North Korea clung to the Chinese border along the Yalu River. At this point a severe case of hubris afflicted General MacArthur while the harsh Korean winter savaged his strung out armies. The mountainous geography of Korea split the UN forces as they fought their way up valleys. MacArthur began to receive troubling intelligence reports that he tended to dismiss. To paraphrase; the reports stated, “Sir, we are capturing Chinese troops.”, and, “Sir, we are over-running airbases that have been out-fitted for Soviet MiG fighters.” MacArthur began to talk about nuclear weapons and crossing the Yalu into China. Mao played his card and sent hundreds of thousands of PRC troops crashing into the Americans. The conflict was now a world war. The United States, the United Nations in the form of the British Commonwealth and South Korea now faced Communist China, the Red (Soviet) Air Force and North Korea.

The American reeled under the enormous Chinese assault, attempted to rally but were forced into ruinous retreats. They did manage to inflict tremendous amounts of casualties on the onrushing Chinese. Truman and MacArthur resumed their argument. The two leaders met at Wake Island to temporarily patch up their differences and discuss strategy. The war ground on and settled into a stalemate in the vicinity of the original line, the 38^th Parallel. The Korean people experienced endless horrors for three main reasons. First, when a particular city changed hands in the ebb and flow of war; individuals were questioned as to their loyalties by either the Communists or the rightist South Koreans. These unfortunates were put in impossible, unexplainable positions and suffered the consequences. Secondly, the United States Air Force bombed and napalmed everything that moved in the combat zones. The ruins were bombed into rubble and the rubble was bombed into dust. Third, prolonged war increases the bitterness between the clashing forces. Therefore, the Koreans were subject to atrocities and bad behavior by the troops of all sides. There is some evidence that indicates that the Americans were greatly feared by the Korean people.

President Truman sacked MacArthur and replaced him with General Matthew Ridgeway. The fighting continued in to 1953 as Ridgeway managed to improve the morale of the battered American infantry and stabilize the front while continuing to fight for debatable reasons to some observers. MacArthur returned to the US and gave his famed, “…..old soldiers never die, they just fade away”, speech to Congress. Ridgeway and the Truman administration opened up negotiations with the North Koreans. The North Koreans proved to be tough bargainers; an attribute they retain to this day. An armistice was proclaimed in 1953. Over one million Koreans were killed, 53,000 US personnel died, thousands of UN troops may be added to the toll along with tens of thousands (at least) of Chinese soldiers. The first modern Korean Civil War was over in a most inconclusive manner. I do not wish to see another, ever.

South Korea survived and actually gained a few thousand yards along the border in some areas. North Korea survived with the satisfaction of actually fighting the Americans to a draw enshrined in their collective consciousness. China and Russia failed to eliminate South Korea while the West failed to eliminate North Korea. Some historians believe that this war may have released Cold War tensions. If so; the Korean people paid the price for all of us in their blood as the world just barely avoided World War III. An armistice is a cease fire; we are still technically at war with North Korea. We know the North Koreans are tough. We know the South Koreans are our friends because they have proved this through Vietnam and Iraq II.  The North Koreans for all of their apparent craziness are most cunning. They know that the United States is aggressively distracted in Iraq and Afghanistan at this historical moment. The best hope for a positive outcome lies within the natural impulse of the Koreans to someday, finally be one united Korean nation again. This desire should be encouraged carefully and pragmatically.

The Ramifications of Korean Re-Unification: Part One

A Dream Deferred: The Ramifications of Korean Unification

The two Koreas have certainly leapt into the news cycle lately with the usual alarms, rhetoric and glimmers of hope. This article is intended to illustrate something of the confusing, poignant and explosive history of Korea in three parts. Given the international importance of events on the Korean Peninsula, it is somewhat surprising that many Americans know more about Japan and China. Yes, Korea was known as the “Hermit Kingdom” for a long time because of the tendency of that nation to avoid foreign contacts. Now is the time to gain some understanding because what happens in the two Koreas will have a great impact on the balance of power in Asia and perhaps everywhere.

It is appropriate to review recent events before plunging into the vast topic of the history of a small nation. To shed light on the present a look at ancient Korea is appropriate. As is the case with all Korean history, ancient Korean history is very complicated. The story involves the three competing Korean kingdoms of Paekche, Korguryo and Shilla. Three outside powers; Japan, China and the Mongols were very influential in the course of Korean History.

The second section will deal with Modern Korean History with a detailed description of the Korean War including the ideologies and international politics that swirled around the conflict. The most important point here is that the Korean War is not over. There is an armistice or a cease-fire; there is no true peace. This is why the situation in Korea remains dangerous.

Thirdly; the question of Korean re-unification arises. Obviously, this dream has been dealt some set-backs lately. An understanding of the bitter, intractable differences between North Korea and the West is necessary here. Some of the more bizarre incidents between the two Koreas will be examined. Further questions necessarily arise when considering potential re-unification. Is it possible? If it is possible how other powers react such as China, Japan, the Russian Confederation and the United States becomes a very sensitive question. If it is possible: how will the re-construction of North Korea be paid for? Only one thing is certain; re-unification is the dream of most Korean people. Despite the artificial division of their country they consider themselves to be one race, one blood and one people. I have witnessed Koreans crying at the De-Militarized Zone (DMZ) as they looked across the closed border. They follow negotiations between North and South with intense, emotional interest.

The recent news from the Koreas is certainly beyond interesting. On August 4^th & 5^th, 2009 former President Bill Clinton traveled to North Korea and arranged the release of two journalists Laura Ling and Euna Lee. Whether or not it was wise for two western reporters to be active in the border area between China and North Korea is an open question. The two women work for former Vice President Al Gore’s, “Current TV”. In March they were accused by the North of spying and sentenced to a hard labor camp. Clinton’s visit was considered, “private” meaning that the Obama administration kept a careful distance. We now know that North Korea insisted on dealing with a very high profile figure from the US. This is a typical strategy on their part; North Korea desires to be, “stroked”. There is a method to the seeming madness and brinksmanship of this regime because they certainly got the attention they wanted. 

This is because North Korea has been under intense international pressure lately for extremely provocative behavior. The North has conducted two tests of nuclear bombs, the second coming on May 29^th, 2009. In addition; the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) has been busy launching ballistic missiles. They even dared to fire missiles over Japan a country that retains an understandable nervousness about nuclear war. There is small comfort in the fact that these weapons seem to have a relatively short range because the missile program seems to be advancing. Because the North Koreans agreed to dismantle their nuclear program in 2007 President Bush removed that nation from the list of state sponsored terrorist nations 2008.

When North Korea resumed atomic and missile tests the world was outraged. United Nations sanctions followed intended to monitor the movements of DPRK merchant ships. North Korea followed this with more fiery rhetoric and threatened to throw out the armistice agreement that “ended” the Korean War. The attitude of the United States hardened. There were to be no diplomatic discussions between the US and the DPRK. Rather, the North was pressured to return to the “Six-Party” talks consisting of the US, South Korea (ROK), the DPRK, Russia, China and Japan.  President Clinton will be de-briefed regarding his observations of the situation, including the health and attitudes of Kim Jong Il, the, “Dear Leader” of the only regime on Earth that is Stalinist with a hereditary means of succession. Icy statements from Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and President Obama have made it clear that there will be no linkage between the release of the two journalists and larger questions of security. This is where things stand as we look into the Korean past in an attempt to illuminate the present.

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It is frozen in time. It is frozen in rage and in the clash of ideologies, a monstrous relic of the Cold War. The Korean De-Militarized Zone is actually one of the most highly militarized places on Earth. It stretches across the entire width of the Korean Peninsula through mountains, rice fields and river basins. It separates an ancient and homogeneous people. This dangerous construct consists of mine fields, artillery emplacements, multiple layers of fortifications, observation posts, electronic eaves-dropping stations, concrete shelters for armored vehicles, mazes of trenches and tunnels dug bored through granite. South Korean and American soldiers suffer icy winters, tropical summers and relentless edgy boredom as they face North Korean troops month after month and year after year. This border, this situation along the 38^th Parallel will change someday. The question is; will change come through war or through peace? When Korea unifies, for it will someday, the geo-political map of the world will undergo an immense shift. A simple glance at the map will suffice to explain.

North Korea borders the People’s Republic of China and also touches the Russian Confederation near Vladivostok. South Korea is very near to Japan with three seashores; the Yellow Sea to the West, the Pacific Ocean to the South and the Sea of Japan to the East. Taken as a whole in terms of geography; the Koreas are a natural pathway to the Japanese Islands. Reversing directions to the North, the Koreas look towards an increasingly powerful China, an increasingly active Russia and a currently pro-Western Mongolia. If there was ever a case of how geography influences History; it is Korea.

Re-unification of the Korean Peninsula is the great question. North Korea is a dangerous, terrible and repressive place. The ‘Dear Leader’, Kim Jong Il is reputed to be in poor health. Should he pass away it is very unclear who will succeed him and what the attitudes of the new leader or leaders will be. Whatever we may think of North Korea in the West; we should always remember that these are very tough people.

South Korea is a vibrant and buoyant democratic nation. The country has surpassed Japan in shipbuilding on its rise to being the eleventh biggest economy in the world. South Korea is the most ‘wired’ nation in terms of broadband access, Inter-net usage and other forms of modern electronica. There are many problems in this culture. Modern values are clashing with the ancient ways of old Asia. South Korea is highly industrialized, fairly polluted and overcrowded.

Should the two Koreas manage to re-unify; a number of fruitful possibilities and potential dangers arise. I will note these in the form of brief statements or questions. A unified Korea would create a power the equivalent of France, Germany, Japan or the United Kingdom. This power would have two powerful militaries, atomic weapons, advanced technology and a large population with the Confucian work ethic. How the advent of ‘Korea’ affect the ‘great game’ of international geo-politics? The other powers in the ‘Six Party Talks’ are the United States, Japan, China and Russia. Merely considering what any of these nations might think of a unified Korea is an intriguing exercise. Is there a face saving way to usher the old guard Communists out of power in North Korea peacefully without disrupting South Korean democracy? Given the catastrophic nature of the 1950-53 Korean War all tough minded, pragmatic peaceful options need to be carefully assessed. What is a reasonable timeline for this process? By that I mean and at the risk of proffering an old cliché; is there a difference in perception in terms of time between East and West. What of the cost? The re-building of East Germany proved to be an enormous burden for West Germany. It will require fantastic amounts of money to improve the North Korean infrastructure. The nature of this new and ancient state will be of vital importance. The inherent questions are multiple and complex. The greatest question might be; how long will any Asian nation diplomatically support the ongoing US led ‘War on Terror’ if that conflict disrupts their supplies of petrol-chemicals? The heartfelt desire of the Korean people to be one nation remains a vital factor in any equation.

#1: Ancient Korea

Korea is a very old civilization. There is archeological evidence of organized human life dating as far back as 6,000 years or more. The inhabitants are of Asian ethnicity with genetic links to the Chinese and to the Mongolians. Korean History is extremely complicated for a number of reasons. As centralized civilizations appeared on the peninsula much of the historical story was dominated by the ‘Three Kingdoms’ of Shilla, Koguryo and Paekche. These kingdoms most likely evolved in a manner familiar to Western historians; they were the dominant or most effective walled city states. The kingdoms competed with each other over the centuries. This complex and at times bloody competition shifted and changed over time as the kingdoms rose or fell in terms of relative power. In addition; the Japanese, Chinese or Mongolians entered the picture at times often through war or, more softly, cultural influence. So, we see the Three Kingdoms playing each other off against the three outside powers, or allied with one of the powers in various combinations. China succeeded in taking Korea as did the Mongols. Japan tried and failed until modern times. The Mongols under Kublai Khan tried to conquer Japan twice (1274 &1281) via Korea were driven back by bad weather and the Samurai. The Koreans managed to control parts of Manchuria at times. Confucianism entered Korea in the mid to late-600’s (AD) as did Buddhism in the mid-700’s both through China. Korea was unified by the Shilla Dynasty in 668 with help from the Chinese Tang Dynasty. However, Paekche and Koguryo never fully accepted this situation and after more intricate conflicts Korea was unified under Koguryo (at this point called Koryo, the root of the word ‘Korea’) in the earlier 900’s. All of the above does not mention the internal politics of Korea. The peasant class played a major role as did the Confucian bureaucracy.

The Koryo Dynasty was considered one of the most advanced civilizations in the world in ancient times. However, it was utterly overwhelmed, crushed by the Mongols in 1231. When the Ming Dynasty in China managed to throw the Mongols out in 1316, this, in turn gave opportunity for the Koreans to rise again. Korea was unified again under the Choson Dynasty. Choson lasted until 1910 when it was absorbed by Imperial Japan in part, as an unanticipated consequence of Russo/Japanese War of 1904-05. A few notes on old Korea are appropriate here before moving on. The Koreans made use of movable metal type by 1234, around two hundred years before Guttenberg. There is some evidence of contact between ancient Korea and Arabic sea-faring traders. The Koreans were the first to use metal clad warships, The Turtle Ships’ between1592-1597 to foil Japanese invasions almost 300 years before the ‘Monitor’ and the ‘Merrimac’ battled in the American Civil War. Korean Celadon pottery is regarded as the finest in the world with its distinctive gray-green-jade coloring. Old Paekche, in particular had a definite influence on Japanese culture. This is a controversial topic because such a claim is a very quick way to annoy Japanese nationalists. An enlightened Korean King, Sejong, along with his scholars created the useful, logical and practical Korean alphabet, ‘Hangul’ in 1620. This alphabet has proved to be one of the best in terms of modern computer usage and programming. In spite of all this cultural advancement the interesting but uncomfortable fact is that at some point, the Korean mind and borders closed during the latter era Choson period; Korea became known as ‘The Hermit Kingdom’. The decline of Choson followed the classical pattern. Infighting and diminishing talent among the royalty, an expensive, costly bureaucracy, and a discontented populace were the ingredients for an eventual fall once the Japanese began to push.

As it goes with all cultures or nations Korea is not a perfect place. Korea knew slavery, rigid class systems, peasant revolts, terrible famines and due to their unfortunate geography; endless wars. Koreans generally tend to regard the Chinese more fondly than they do the Japanese. This loyalty, however ancient, constantly shifts in the minds of individuals perhaps due to the accelerating changes in the post-modern world. The weather is generally horrible except for the beautiful and brief fall. The summers are hot, wet and very humid. The winters feature months of snow and frigid winds from Siberia. Spring can be uncomfortably murky at times because pollution from China and red dust from the Gobi desert darken the skies. Korean is known as, “The Land of the Morning Calm” and it truly is a very beautiful place. The mountains look somehow alien or different to the Western eye. These jagged, forested ranges slope down to rice paddies, farms, cities and towns. Beautiful rivers, streams, brooks and underground fresh water springs abound. The larger cities look like science-fiction sets due to the creative modern architecture. When a traveler ducks down an alley he or she goes back in time. One discovers a world of small shops and tiny shack-like stalls. Everything is for sale from compact discs, copies of American baseball caps, exotic foods to mysterious herbal remedies. The entire effect grows in the observer’s mind until the subtle attractiveness of this crowded place becomes apparent.

As a society; Korea both enraptures and troubles Westerners, especially individualist Americans. This is in my view, due to the mixed blessing of Confucianism. Family bonds are eternal, somehow transcending time from the deceased honored ancestors to the youngest children. Elements of patriarchy dominate as women or anyone who is a ‘free-thinker’ struggles to rise. A basic guide-book for Korea will tell you that the Koreans are the, ‘Irish’ of Asia. This indicates a certain poignancy in regards to Korean History and in the characters of the people. They love to drink socially; they love sad ballads, they are loyal friends and the toughest of enemies, a fact that should come as no surprise given their history.